PUSHING THE TANTRIC ENVELOPE: P. R. SARKAR, ANANDA MARGA, AND TANTRA AS A TOOL FOR SOCIAL LIBERATION Andy Douglas Dec. 20, 1999 Tantra in India and Beyond Prof. Fred Smith INTRODUCTION This paper will explore a modern-day Tantric organization, Ananda Marga (The Path of Bliss), attempting to trace its Tantric roots, describe its Tantric approach, and make note of its Tantric innovations. The figure of the guru is especially important in the world of Tantra, and in this, Ananda Marga (AM) is no exception. Under the guidance of AM's guru and founder, Shri Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar, AM developed a unique blending of Yogic, Shaeva, Vaesnava and social liberation characteristics, bringing to bear the Tantric worldview on social problems in a coordinated manner. It is this last which seems to me unprecedented. Tantra is a complicated phenomenon. It is difficult to say definitively what Tantra is or is not. Certain themes or commonalities link otherwise disparate groups, but for the most part Tantrics focus on personal spiritual liberation. AM is unusual, I believe, because it attempts to link Tantric practice, a traditionally individual concern, with efforts at social change. I have been a member of this organization for 17 years. This cannot help but color my perspective. My aim, however, is not to lead cheers for the group but to strive to provide a critical understanding of its context and history. There are precedents for the political use of Tantra, of course. Historically, Tantra has been used to shore up the reign of kings, and even present-day political leaders such as Indira Gandhi are known to have consulted Tantrics. (Gupta, Hoens and Goudriaan, 1979: 30.) But this is not Tantra as social emancipatory tool. AM claims to signal an inclusive shift from individual to collective liberation. I will look first in general terms at historical Tantra. Then, since the organization in question originated in West Bengal under a Bengali preceptor, I'll look briefly at the practice of Tantra in Bengal. I will then turn to the philosophy and practices of AM itself, and finally explore Sarkar's concept of Tantra as a tool for social liberation. THE EMANCIPATING UNIVERSE According to Teun Goudriaan, Tantra is rooted in very old traditions of unsystematized yoga and body cult, shamanism, medicine, magic white and black, astrology, religious eroticism and folkloristic ritual. (Gupta, Hoens and Goudriaan, 1979:17). Although not all Tantric traditions share the same qualities, one can generalize about certain defining characteristics. Tantra often is concerned with kundalini and yoga, the mystic nature of speech, mudras, yantras, mantras which are invested with power, a practical sadhana, categories taken from non-Tantric sources, visualization, and ritual practices. It often utilizes transgressive elements which rock the boat of status quo values. (Goudriaan and Gupta, 1982). Goudriaan notes that Tantra is seen by some as a reaction to the Vedas which were considered to be no longer comprehensible for mankind in the present deteriorating stage of world history. It is also said that Vedic worship was lacking in results. (Gupta, Hoens and Goudriaan, 1982: 15). Though Tantra may be traced much further back, a boom in Tantric practice occurred around the middle of the first millenium A. D. Sources prove the existence of regular Shaivite cults already in the earliest centuries A.D. (Goudriaan and Gupta,1982: 21). David White, in his useful book The Alchemical Body, casts an illuminating glow on the cosmology of Tantrics. The Tantric universe is divine and life-affirming. It is a pulsating, vibratory place, in which "matter, souls, and sound are the stuff of the outpouring of godhead into manifestation, with godhead generally identified with Siva and his self-manifestation or self-reflection taking the form of the Goddess." It is a bipolar, sexualized universe, "in which all change and transformation are viewed as so many instances of an interpenetration of male and female principles." And, ultimately, it is an emancipating universe. (White, 1996: 143). Douglas Brooks' definition is especially helpful. According to Brooks, Tantra needs to be understood metaphorically. Literally in Sanskrit a "loom" or warp of threads, "Tantras weave together concepts and prescriptions for action to create distinctive, synthetic types of spiritual discipline. The Tantras expand the possibilities for human liberation and empowerment in the increasingly degenerate Kali age." (Brooks, 1990: 5). Tantra thus seems often to be a synthetic phenomenon, absorbing ideas and practices left and right, so to speak, in order to suit the needs of time and place. In line with this synthetic character, the general philosophies underpinning Tantra, according to Goudriaan, have been diverse. They may be categorized as monism, monism cum dualism or dualism. There is the transcendental unity of Siva and Sakti usually held by Sakta and Saiva philosophy. The Vedantic doctrine of the identity of the Self and Absolute is repeated in Tantric sources. And, there is also considerable emphasis laid on bhakti in many Tantric sources; the foremost recipient being the guru. (Gupta, Hoens and Goudriaan, 1982: 49). "POETS AND REVOLUTIONARIES" I'll turn now to an examination of Tantra in Bengal. Bengal has been a powerful matrix for the development of Tantric thought. In this region mingled Buddhist, Vaesnava, Shaeva and Shakta traditions. S. C. Banerji notes some of the major points and players. Krsnananda, called the brightest luminary in the firmament of the Tantra literature of Bengal, lived around 1500 A. D. His Tantrasara contains the essence of Tantra works of all the sects, and is very popular in Bengal. He is credited with the conception, for the first time, of the Kali image current in Bengal. Purnananda, another great figure from the late1500s A. D., wrote in his Sritattva-cintamani about the means of acquiring siddhis, or occult powers, destroying enemies, understanding animals, and other matters. Renewed interest to Tantrism by Bengal aristocrats in the latter part of the 18th century resulted in the writing of the Mahanirvana Tantra. (Gupta, Hoens, and Goudriaan, 1982: 28). Banerji agrees that this work is not very old. This text may have been written by Hariharanandanatha, preceptor of the great social reformer, Ram Mohan Roy, to shore up his reformist views. The first edition was published by Adi Brahma Samaj, an organization founded by Roy. (Banerji, 1978: 104). In it, great importance is placed on mantra, bija, yantra, mudra, and nyasa. It also touches on the pancamakara, the five forbidden substances. Banerji notes controversy over whether the rites of this recent text are valid. All Bengali works are unanimous in according the most exalted place to the guru, a position higher than that even of one's father. The guru is considered as Siva or Para Brahman incarnate. Initiation by a woman is also said to be salutary. (Banerji, 1978: 123). Other typical Tantric rites described in Bengali Tantric works include Saiva sadhana - worship on a corpse, smashan sadhana, and the worship of yoginis. Great importance is given to antaryaga, that is, as Banerji describes it, mental worship in which the five forbidden substances are conceived as abstract things. Bengali Tantra accords an exalted place to women, according to Banerji. Sudras, too, are equally eligible to participate. In Bengal, Saktism is still the prominent denomination. (Gupta, Hoens, and Goudriaan, 1982: 27). This is goddess worship, such as that of Daksinakalika. The goddess is seen as not only the manifestation of creation, but as the ultimate reality as well. "Devi who is the real cause of the cosmic process also manifests herself in the fivefold shape of the elements although her highest form is identical with Brahman." (Goudriaan and Gupta, 1982: 77). Tantra in Bengal could not escape the overwhelming influence of Vaisnavaism as preached by Caitanya Mahaprabhu in the 15th century A. D. Caitanyaism flooded the religious life of Bengal, writes Banerji, and the doctrine which holds Caitanya to be the Supreme Being was an accepted creed. (Banerji, 1978: 116). Goudriaan notes that Vaisnavas in medival Bengal developed a special kind of Tantric sadhana called Sahajiiya "with as its most important characteristic the theory and sometimes ritual practice, of divine love exemplified in its most pure form in the feelings towards another's wife." (Gupta, Hoens, and Goudriaan, 1982: 27). Great Goddess worshippers such as Sri Ramakrishna, and his disciple, Vivekananda, characterized as a Hindu missionary to the West, also left their mark on Bengal Tantra. (de Bary, 1958: 85). Finally, it is important to note that Bengal is marked by a certain revolutionary spirit. On an anecdotal level, a Hindi-speaking friend in Calcutta once described Bengalis to me as "all crazy - either poets or revolutionaries." In the last two hundred years, Bengal has been fertile ground for social activists and revolutionaries, including those who combine religion with their activism. The partition of Bengal by the British sparked a great deal of such political activity. In this regard, I would like to mention Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950). According to de Bary, "Aurobindo defined the essence of religious nationalism in a manner which for sheer passion has never been surpassed... He came to idealize both his native land and his ancestral faith and to identify one with the other in a way no previous thinker had dared to do." However, he also failed to perceive the limitations of Hindu nationalism in light of India's multi-cultural reality, foreshadowing a modern dilemma. (de Bary, 1958: 173). It is also interesting to note the work of 19th century Bengali novelist Bankim Chatterjee, who wrote Anandamath, a novel about revolutionary sannyasins who lead a revolt against Muslim dominance (in a thinly veiled description of the situation under the British). In the novel, Chatterjee popularized the rallying cry Bande Mataram., "Hail Mother India," identifying India with Sakti Herself. From a fictional order of radical monks we jump to an actual one. There are similarities between Anandamath and Ananda Marga. Both are comprised of dynamic renunciates dedicated to social change. However, an important shift must be noted, that from Hindu nationalism to a "universal humanism." For Sarkar, it is not India, but the universe, as mother, Cosmic Consciousness as father, and all humanity as brothers and sisters. "TANTRA IS SADHANA" With this shift, the theme of this paper comes into sharper focus. The goal for practitioners of Ananda Marga is clearly spelled out by Shri Sarkar: Atmamoksartham jagat hitayaca, that is, liberation of self and service to the universe. The liberatory emphasis, combined with an expansive embrace of others, is emphasised from the outset. Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar (1921-1990) was a teacher, philosopher, spiritual preceptor, revolutionary, and administrative genius. Based in Calcutta, he created a large, dynamic, world-wide organization, composed of both monks and nuns, and family people committed to the above-mentioned ideal. In his spiritual capacity he was known as Shrii Shrii Anandamurti. However, I will refer to him in this paper using his family name, under which he wrote many of his social treatises. At the center of Sarkar's vision lies Tantra. His fundamental view is of a universe embodying a deep shared consciousness which situates all human activity in reverential relationship. The resources of this universe are seen as common patrimony. This perspective leads to a call for not only spiritual emancipation, but social and economic liberation as well. Through Tantric practices, one may acquire the clarity, determination and vigor to work for social justice. The following quote lays out the dimensions of this idea: "Those who think dharma to be an individual's concern conceive it in a very narrow sense. Dharma leads to Cosmic unity, inculcating in the individual mind Cosmic idealism. {It is} the unifying force in humanity. Moreover, spirituality provides a human being and humanity at large with that subtle and tremendous power with which no other power can be compared. Therefore, with spirituality as the base, a rational philosophy should be evolved to deal with the physical, psychological and socio-philosophical problems of the day." (Anandamurti, 1994: 77). Sarkar sees spirituality as a practical process. The meditative practices which comprise the effort to expand one's consciousness are essentially Tantra. "The process of transforming [latent divinity] into the Supreme Divinity is known as Tantra sadhana. The sleeping divinity in animality is termed, in the language of spiritual aspirants, the kulakundalinii. So we find that actually the spirit of Tantra lies in infusing a [vibration] in the kulakundalinii and pushing her up towards the spiritual goal." (Anandamurti, 1994: 22). And, "the significance of the term tantra is 'liberation from bondage [the bondage of dullness or staticity].' ... The spiritual practice which liberates the aspirant from the dullness or animality of the static force and expands the aspirant's self is Tantra sadhana. So there cannot be any spiritual practice without Tantra. Tantra is sadhana." (Anandamurti, 1994: 22). He goes on to say that Tantra in itself is neither a religion nor an ism. Rather it is a fundamental spiritual science. As noted earlier, the practices of Tantra are often viewed as transgressive, forcing one to break out of sterotypical ways of viewing oneself and the world. They span the imaginative gamut, including sexual sadhana, sadhana involving skulls, etc. Sarkar locates AM in the middle of this continuum. That is, AM is madhyama or the middle way. "The spirit of sadhana is to wage an all-round fight against Maya, to overcome her tenacious influence. This battle of sadhana can be carried out in one of three ways - Daksinacara sadhana, Vamacara, sadhana or Madhyamacara sadhana. Daksinacara sadhakas are afraid to declare war directly against Prakrti. They want to please Maya through entreaties, and they pray for liberation from that propitiated Maya. "Vamacara sahdakas are inclined to continue the random and relentless fight against Maya, irrespective of whether the goal is fixed before them or not. Their will to struggle, their courage and valiant spirit are undoubtedly praiseworthy.. But in the absence of a fixed goal before them, they fail in their endeavour to attain liberation. Often, they become tempted to mususe their hard-earned spiritual power, causing damage to themselves and society. "Madhyamacara sadhakas want to fight against Prakrti, keeping Brahma fixed before them. They move forward towards the spiritual effulgence of Brahmajyoti, tearing the veil of darkness of Avidya." (Anandamurti, 1994: 88-90). This is, of course, right and left-handed, and middle Tantra, according to Sarkar. On one side, the practitioner engages mainly in (Vedic-based) prayer, and on the other in transgressive practices. The middle way in which one's mind is fixed firmly on the goal leads most directly to the realization of God. It is interesting to note the mention of the effect on society of Tantric power. Goudriaan notes that for some adherents of Tantrism who strove after a compromise betweenVeda and Tantra, "the practice of Vedic as well as Tantric ritual, is a necessary condition to spiritual emancipation." On the other hand, the Tantric dharma is described as the essence, the best part of the Veda. (Gupta, Hoens and Goudriaan, 1982:15). AM for the most part focusses solely on the practice of Tantra. However, some Vedic mantras are recognized, such as the Samgaddchadvam shloka. Sarkar says that "moving together means that all portions of society, all portions of the collective body, should have the spirit to move ahead. Samgacchadhvam means to build a strong, well-knit society where there shall be no exploitation, no superiority complex or inferiority complex." (Anandamurti, 1981: 50). It should be clear that AM fits into the Tantric ballpark. But in terms of the variety of underpinning philosophies that may accompany Tantric practice, where do its roots lie? David White notes some of the main possibilities: Samkhya "affirmed the existence of a plurality of selves and the reality of the world for so long as spirit remained confused with nature or original materiality." Vedanta "asserted the identity of the individual soul with the universal soul while denying the reality of the phenomenal world." Yoga "was a remounting of those stages through which absolute poured itself out to form our manifold, manifest universe." (White, 1996: 33). And, as noted previously, one of the main fissure lines is on the question of monism and dualism. The philosophy of Ananda Marga is described by Sarkar as Advaeta-Dvaeta-Advaeta, that is, nondualistic-dualistic-nondualism. "The jiivas indeed proceed from dvaeta to advaeta, but that dualistic nature of the jiivas and their emergence on this earth, is due to the fact they have come out of Parama Purusa in the centrifugal movement of His creation. We come therefore to the final conclusion that the jiivas are initially non-dualistic in nature. It is only in the middle stage that they are dualistic in nature. Later... they return to their non-dualistic character. (Anandamurti, 1981: 191). In his Ananda Sutram, Sarkar elaborates on this further. Brahma is the ultimate truth, and the world is truth as well, but a relative truth. This rejects the idea of world as illusion. The world, though relative, is real, and in true Tantric fashion, offers itself to be used as a vehicle for realization. At the core of this philosophy is the linking of Shiva and Shakti. Brahma is the composite of these two. Shiva is consciousness, Shakti or Prakrti, energy, made up of the three gunas, the sentient, mutative and static forces. Bursting forth from unqualified consciousness, the universe is expressed through Cosmic Mind, then through the five fundamental factors. There is a cycle of creation here, consciousness moving from subtle to crude, then back from crude matter to the ultimate subtlety of reunion with the Absolute. The goal of the individual soul is anandam or brahma, infinite bliss. (Anandamitra, 1981). The process of returning to that infinite state is sadhana. And the method is yoga. Ananda Marga's spiritual practices are based, in part, on Patanjali's astaunga yoga. The classic characterization of yoga can be found at the beginning of Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, where yoga is defined as the suspension of the cognitive functions of the mind - yogas cittavrttinirodhah.. (Verma, 1996: 163). Yet Sarkar notes that since it is the nature of mind to think, to try to stop the thinking process is unnatural. He supports the Tantric definition: Sam'yogo yogo ityukto jiiva'tma' Parama'tmanah. According to Tantra, unification of jiivatma with Paramatma means yoga (Anandamurti, 1981: 7). The Yoga Sutra assigns to yoga eight steps: yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, pratyahara, dharana, dhyana, and samadhi. According to Gupta, in strict Tantra circles yoga had only six steps, omitting the first three of Patanjali's eight steps. (Gupta, Hoens and Goudriaan, 1979: 165). Sarkar recognizes the eightfold path. In his book, A Guide to Human Conduct, he places great emphasis on ethics, as spelled out in Yama and Niyama. The spiritual path begins here; one cannot develop without morality. Key to Tantric yogic practice is the ista mantra, taught by the guru, or by an acarya, one of his representatives. Hoens notes that "by meditation on the place of the highest principle he is saved, thus it is called man-tra." Mantra is comprised of the root man - "applying emotional, moved, willful, intentionally directed thought" and the suffix -tra which is used for names of instruments. (Gupta, Hoens and Goudriaan, 1979: 102). Sarkar has a similar definition: man-tra means that which liberates the mind. (Anandamurti, 1993: 69). Cosmic ideation is at the core of this transformative process. Simple repetition of mantra without ideation on its meaning (generally, the unity of atma and Brahma), is fruitless. "Every action should be guided by dharma, with the sole desire to become one with Paramapurusa. The practical process for this is Guru Mantra or Madhuvidya, the second lesson of Ananda Marga sadhana - taking the ideation of the Supreme with every action, so that all energies are channeled toward the Goal. " (Anandamurti cited in Anandamitra, 1981: 92). Cakras, mind, kundalinii and vrittis, or "ways of expression of mind," are all components in this sadhana. Sarkar reconceptualized the process of purifying cakras and raising the kundalinii, terming the process "biopsychology," placing emphasis on the effects of the interrelationship between mind, the glands, cakras and behavior. Hence, a great emphasis is placed on purity of diet and conduct. THE SHAEVA-VAESNAVA SYNTHESIS One factor which distinguishes AM significantly from much of Bengal Tantrism is the absence of any form of goddess worship. In fact, the worship of deities is not recognized per se. (Anandamurti, 1993: 184). Rather, there is a focus on Supreme Consciousness as the goal, a consciousness which underlies and composes creation. Ananda Marga sadhana, according to Sarkar, follows three stages, that of Shakta, Vaesnava, Saeva. The Sakta approach seems to be a reinterpretation by Sarkar, having little to do with the goddess. "A sakta is one who is determined to awaken his or her cognitive faculty and fight against the negative influence of the static principle... In the second stage, the sadhaka remains absorbed in the flow of Cosmic bliss; this is Vaesnava sadhana, the endeavour to throw oneself into the current of Cosmic bliss and float towards the supreme goal....The attainment of the eternal stance at the altar of Nirguna Brahma is Sharvavastha [the highest Shaivite stage of realization]. In Ananda Marga there has been a unique blending of the Shakta, Shaeva and Vaesnava systems of spiritual practice." (Anandamurti, 1994: 7). The essence of Shaeva Dharma is all-round expansion, Sarkar notes in Discourses on Tantra (Anandamurti, 1993: 189). This is another sort of reinterpretation. We may call AM a Shaeva path, but not in the traditional sense of worshipping the personal Hindu god Shiva. Rather, Shiva stands for that Supreme Consciousness that is the goal of the spiritual aspirant. As noted, Sarkar does recognize the fundamental intertwining of Shiva and Shakti, in the sense of knowledge and energy working in harmony. But, "this energy, unless guided and controlled by consciousness, may indulge in destructive activities." (Anandamurti, 1993: 237). In Ananda Sutram he writes that the goal of the spiritual aspirant is not Prakrti, but Purusa. "Their ultimate goal is the blissful Cosmic Consciousness, which is above the influence of Prakrti, imperishable, irreducible." (Anandamurti in Anandamitra, 1981: 9). Anandamitra adds, "In India there are many worshippers of Prakrti who ideate on Shakti. They may develop occult powers, but their ultimate union is with Prakrti." (Anandamitra, 1981: 9). This interpretation might stir a challenge from Saktas who see the Goddess as the Absolute. Sexual sadhana is a form of Tantra which has gained wide notoriety, and indeed, represents the whole of Tantra to many people. Still, it is not the norm in every Tantric tradition, and is not practiced in AM. Sarkar draws a distinction between crude and subtle Tantric practice, giving the example of pancamakara, but utilizing the five subtle substitutes (drinking amrta instead of wine; control over the tongue instead of eating meat; "eating the fish" that swim in the ida and pingala, that is breath control, instead of eating actual fish; good company instead of parched grain; and the union of kundalinii with Paramashiva at the highest cakra, instead of sexual union) for the crude substances. Although the crude variation is not taught in AM, Sarkar does say that "many people comment adversely on the fifth M [sexual intercourse]. Through this process of sadhana, people of cruder propensities can gradually develop self-restraint. This is the teaching of Tantra, and nobody should object to it." (Anandamurti, 1994: 50). He does condemn certain other Tantra practices, such as the six acts. "The power that is applied by degenerated Tantrics in the sat karma of Tantra - that is psychically killing, dominating, stupefying, hypnotizing, etc - has in reality nothing to do with spirituality." (Anandamurti, 1994: 29). In sum, it seems clear that for Sarkar, Tantra is a tool for welfare, not for selfish ends. At the heart, literally, of Tantra, is the role of guru. "The disciple's heart is a field; sadhana is the ploughing and irrigation of the field; and the preceptor's initiation is the sowing of seeds." (Anandamurti, 1994: 39). Brooks provides a compelling description of the guru- disciple relationship. "The Tantric guru is both an existential ideal, perfect in form and unaltering in nature, and at the same time, a creative, dynamic, and performative being who, like Sakti herself, is both One and Many." (Brooks, 1990: 138). Performative is a good choice of words. If I may draw on my personal experience for a moment, I observed that Sarkar had an extraordinary ability to create "dramas" which forced the devotee to relinquish his or her tight-fisted grip of ego and re-evaluate the way he or she interacted with the world. He did this often in the role of organizational administrator. Sarkar held "reporting sessions" on a regular basis, the ostensible purpose of which was to hear about the progress of AM projects. But another level of discourse altogether was occurring, in which Sarkar explored the karmic burdens of those present, graced them with spiritual experiences, answered questions which were often unvoiced, and rectified mistakes. Like Milarepa who was pushed to the limit by his guru Marpa, Sarkar's punishments also are claimed to have freed individuals from some of their karmic debt. "Superior preceptors take meticulous care to ensure that their disciples follow their teachings," Sarkar writes. "If they discover that their disciples are negligent in any way, they compel them to practise more painstakingly by applying circumstantial pressure." (Anandamurti, 1994: 40). Here the Vaesnava influence comes to the fore. Devotionalism, including kiirtan, the singing of the Lord's name, and pranipata, surrender to the Cosmic will, is directed at the guru who is seen as an expression of the Supreme Consciousness. Bhakti is the best way to liberation. (Anandamurti: 1981: 7). Acarya Dharmavedananda Avadhuta repeats an old refrain in his book Who's Afraid of the Tantric Guru?: "If God and guru are standing before the disciple, whose feet should the disciple touch first? The guru's because the guru is the way to God, without which it would be impossible to ever meet God. The disciple treats the guru not as an ordinary teacher, but as the spiritual path itself." (Dharmavedananda, 1995: 5). FORGING THE LINK I'd like to begin moving now towards an understanding of how the philosophy of AM makes the leap from individual to social, and encourages the integration of Tantric practices with efforts aimed at social liberation. Sarkar was a prodigious thinker, and wrote over 200 books on a variety of subjects. These include a Bengali dictionary of over 6000 difficult words, English, Sanskrit and Bengali grammar books, writings on agriculture, economics, education, history and civilization, health habits and medical treatment, analysis of various spiritual scriptures, and children's stories. He also composed 5018 songs during an eight year period. Among these works is the philosophy of Neo-Humanism, which attempts to draw the connection between the interdependent nature of the universe and social accountability. "All living creatures in this manifest universe are the children of the same Cosmic Progenitor. Naturally they are bound in a thread of fraternal relations. This is the central spirit. A socio-economic theory is of no use but for this fraternal feeling." (Sarkar cited in Anderson and Coyle, 1983: 101). Ac. Vedaprajinananda Avt., in a booklet on this theme, writes that "the higher possibilities of human nature demand that the mind be free to expand and to flow towards the Supreme Consciousness. When this happens a human being develops love for that Supreme and love for all other beings." It is this connection and love which motivates one to serve others. Animals, plants, and the environment also deserve our respect and care. Sarkar also identifies limiting sentiments in the human mind which tend to balkanize this connectedness, and suggests ways to expand the scope of the mind beyond these identifications. This is not a feel-good, "we are the world" outlook. It is critical, writes Michael Towsey, for those engaged in this kind of project to analyse the world of practical reality, observing that there are physical and psychological differences between groups of people that must be catered for. Then to return to a synthetic or universal outlook, armed with the necessary practical knowledge to make social equality a reality. (Towsey, 1986: 198). It may be instructive to briefly look at Sarkar's life in order to understand how he moved from the spiritual to the social sphere. Dharmavedananda writes that from 1955 Sarkar began training acharyas and empowering them to teach the meditation lessons. "He saturated his disciples in blissful experiences,frequently demonstrating extraordinary psycho-spiritual phenomena. He induced different states of super-consciousness in his disciples, caused individuals to die and brought them back to life, and created special circumstances in which they would hear divine sounds." "This purely spiritual phase ended in 1962 when [Sarkar] began the order of monks and nuns. Though his demonstrations continued, he now began organizing massive social service programs. [His followers] threw themselves into opening schools and welfare homes, and into catastrophe relief work... Throughout this same period, the public was introduced to his socio-economic theory, Progressive Utilization Theory (PROUT)." This theory is critical of both capitalism and communism, and is based on the sense of cosmic fraternity noted above. PROUT recommends rational distribution of the world's resources. Sarkar envisioned self-sufficient decentralized economic zones with local level planning providing full employment (to be constitutionally guaranteed), an emphasis on cooperative industry, and ever-increasing improvement in the minimum standards of living. He also encouraged the development of high-caliber, ethical leadership; one way to develop this was through spiritual sadhana. (Sarkar, 1983). Since the mid-60's, Sarkar's followers have become active in movements against exploitation and protecting the environment, worked to introduce his ideas in the academic arena, and created sustainable communities around the globe based on these spiritual and economic principles. Dharmavedananda continues: "By [1969], Ananda Marga's influence had grown considerably. Half the police commissioners of Bihar state were margiis as were many other public officials...[Sarkar] had always spoken out against all forms of corruption, and margiis in public positions began exposing the corruption rampant in the administration at that time. In 1969... the central government passed a ban order, forbidding civil servants to join AM... AM filed a challenge in the Supreme Court and won the case, causing the ban to be withdrawn. In complicity with the Central Bureau of Investigation, the government concocted murder charges against Sarkar." Sarkar was imprisoned for 7 years, five years of which he fasted. In 1978 when Indira Gandhi was voted out of office, he was released and acquitted of all charges. Sarkar often spoke about the inevitability of difficulties and obstacles, which are "not to be feared or avoided; rather they are our greatest friends on the spiritual path. To realize God, one must wage a never-ending battle against the force of tamoguna, against avidyamaya, which continually seeks to limit the expansion of consciousness." (Anandamurti in Anandamitra, 1981: 203). This is Tantra as struggle. "Tantra is both an external and an internal fight. The internal fight is a practice of the subtler portion of Tantra. The external fight is a practice of the cruder portion. The practice for raising the kundalinii is the internal sadhana of Tantra, while shattering the bondages of hatred, suspicion, fear, shyness, etc. by direct action is the external sadhana." (Anandamurti, 1994: 27). Dharmavedananda elaborates on this concept: "Tantra finds or creates circumstances designed expressly to bring out, rather than to bury, one's problematic mental tendencies... Only if a spiritual aspirant, at least at some stage, deliberately seeks out fearful, demoralizing or tempting circumstances in order to fight and overcome them by Cosmic ideation and trust in the guru, does it deserve to be called Tantra." "A Tantric guru assigns to his disciples tremendous responsibilities for social change. The disciples' participation in activist movements aimed at a just and spiritually-based society forces them to confront sometimes physical fear, but more routinely the fear of social censure and of the overwhelming task before them." (Dharmavedananda, 1995: 437). Thus, social activism - "the struggle" - is seen an integral part of spiritual growth. Such is clearly not the norm historically. As Goudriaan writes, "it has been argued that Tantrism had rooted in a movement of the masses which reacted against social ills and the excess of the established religion. But the data at our disposal do not confirm this. ...Tantric sadhana... is a purely personal affair concerning the individual self's release from the bondage of existence. It did not try to direct its followers towards a greater self-consciousness in these matters." (Gupta, Hoens and Goudriaan, 1979: 29). However, one area in which this new Tantra does echo earlier practice is in its anti-caste sentiment. Goudriaan notes that Tantric rites are open to people of all castes and creeds, because all men are Siva and all women are Sakti. "All varnas become Brahmans." (Gupta, Hoens and Goudriaan, 1979: 32). Not surprisingly, Sarkar comes out strongly against caste. In Ananda Marga, marriages between castes and indeed, between nationalities, have been the norm. "The caste system is based on the principle of distinctions and differences. This system has constituted the greatest obstruction to the formation of a strong, well-organized, well-knit society. The caste system is recognized by the Vedas only, not by Tantra. In the Tantric cult, although there is cent per cent scope for a person's all-round development, nevertheless, as human beings, all remain in an equal status. That is why there cannot be any compromise between Tantra and the caste system." (Anandamurti, 1994: 33). "LIBERATORY AND THEREFORE POLITICAL" In his article "Tantra as Episteme: A Pedagogy of the Future" Marcus Bussey writes that Sarkar's vision encompasses an episteme that allows for human potential to be expanded to include new ethical and spiritual dimensions. "While Sarkar's is not a lone voice, it is a seminal one in the effort to chart alternatives that are more creative and more fully attuned to human aspiration and spirit." Part of this vision is of a Tantra University, which was recently opened in Purulia District of West Bengal. Bussey notes successful movies such as Star Wars have popularized concepts central to Tantra such as self-perfection gained through disciplined training and the existence of an all pervading 'force', which in tantric literature would be called 'consciousness.' "What is unique about the way Sarkar has redefined Tantra is that it gives very clear form to these popularized images and fuses them in a spiritual and social agenda that generates the energy and vision to begin the project of social reconstruction." (Bussey, 1998: 11). Modern Tantra, as Sarkar has defined it, is "specifically liberatory and therefore political." Sarkar radically shifted the emphasis from the individual to the collective by "linking the two so that neither could progress without the other. Spirituality ceases to be selfish and becomes a collective act....The individual works for their own liberation by following specific practices, while at the same time struggling to free others from physical, social and spiritual bondage. This brings to spirituality an ironic tension in which the individual must engage with the world in many ordinary and extraordinary ways." (Bussey, 1998: 13). Sarkar as a Tantric guru created an intensely dedicated cadre of full-time missionary workers. He developed a philosophy to underpin the link between spirituality and social change, and propounded theories aimed at socio-economic empowerment and liberation. And he taught Tantric practices which aim at developing the human personality in all respects. All in the context of an intensely dynamic organization. What are we to make of all this? No doubt a number of questions arise. Are these socio-economic ideas practical on a larger scale? Is this simply another twist on the old oft-gone-wrong marriage of religion and politics? There are no doubt many levels on which these ideas could be critiqued. It is not within the scope of this paper to do so. Sarkar's ideas are beginning to be discussed in a number of important forums. Still, as Tantra is a practical science, perhaps the best standard of evaluation is their effect on those who have embraced them. I can say that on a personal level, I have gained, through my embrace of Sarkar's approach to Tantra, both spiritual fulfillment and a welcome radicalization on social issues. To the extent that they have empowered thousands of people around the globe to work seriously for their own spiritual growth and the welfare - social and economic as well as spiritual - of others, one may say that Sarkar's ideas have earned a place at the table of discourse on how we, as a society, are to best live in this fragile world. BIBLIOGRAPHY Anandamitra Avtk., Ac. 1981. 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